Bald Cypress Taxodium distichum
Bracken Fern Pteridium aquilinum
Cabbage Palmetto Sabal palmetto
Canby’s Dropwort Oxypolis canbyi
Poison Ivy Toxicodendrum radicans (Rhus radicans)
Pondberry Lindera melissifolia
Bald Cypress Taxodium distichum
Description
Bald cypress belongs to the cypress family (Taxodiaceae). It is a large deciduous tree that can reach heights over 40 m (130 ft) tall with a diameter of 4 m (13 ft). The bark is thin (about 1 cm or 0.5 in thick), gray-brown, and rough in texture. The light green leaves are 1-1.5 cm (0.5-0.75 in) long and needle-like or flat linear in shape. The flowers are monoecious (individual flowers have either male or female flower parts). Male flowers (contain stigma, the pollen- producers) are minute, purple in color, and grow in drooping panicles that originate at the end of the previous year’s twigs. The female flowers are inconspicuous and composed of several spirally arranged, overlapping scales that bear two ovules (seed producers). The cones are made of a few four-sided scales, and each scale bears two triangular seeds. Each cone contains 18 to 30 seeds that have a thick horny coat and irregular projecting flanges or wings along the sides. The most distinctive features of the trees are the swollen, fluted trunks at the base of the tree and the above-ground root structures, commonly known as “knees."
Habitat and Biology
The natural range of bald cypress extends from Delaware to Florida and west through Texas, almost to the Mexican border. It is also found in Missouri, Illinois, Indiana and Oklahoma, but a few trees have been planted as far north as Massachusetts and Michigan. In the ACE Basin, the largest stands of bald cypress are found along the South Edisto and Combahee Rivers, above the intersection of U.S. Highway 17. Although bald cypress trees will grow under a considerable range of climatic conditions, they reach maximum heights in warmer climates. The trees typically inhabit the organic and clay soils in the deepest areas of swamps along water bodies and in flood plain forests. However, bald cypress trees planted in moderately well-drained fine sandy loams grow well.
Contrary to the popular belief that bald cypress are slow-growing trees, the growth rate of trees less than 100 years old is comparable to that of other trees growing in the swamp. Populations of bald cypress are maintained by sexual reproduction. Seeds are produced each year, and a good seed production occurs at intervals of about every 3 years. Seeds mature by fall, and they fall to the ground from late October to November. Although bald cypress trees grow well on moderately well-drained fine sandy loams, the trees are restricted to wetlands because of the water requirement for seed dispersal, germination and seedling growth. Water is necessary for seed dispersal because only a few seeds are disseminated by animals, and the wind cannot lift the large, small-winged seeds. The majority of the seeds will only germinate after 1-3 months of submergence after water has caused the hard seed coats to swell and soften. The best seed germination also occurs on wet, organic, or peaty soils. Seedlings sprout when the water recedes, and the ground remains saturated during the growing season. However, the water must remain below the leaves of the growing seedling except for short periods (5 weeks or less). Seedlings usually grow 40 to 51 cm (16 to 20 in) during the first two years. The species flowers during the winter, and pollination occurs before the leaves emerge in spring. The cones mature by late October and November, becoming brown and woody. The seeds then break away from the scales and fall to the ground. Occasionally the entire cone falls to the ground before the seeds are released.
Species Significance
Bald cypress wood is highly valued for its resistance to decay. The sticky, red resin on the seeds appears to repel many animals, and rarely are the seeds eaten by birds and mammals. The Florida crane, gadwall and mallards are a few of the animals that eat the seeds of bald cypress.
References
Langdon, O.G. 1958. Silvical characteristics of bald cypress. Southeastern Forest Experiment Station. Asheville, NC. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service.
Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim, and A.L. Nelson. 1951. American wildlife and plants: A guide to wildlife food habits. Dover Publications Inc., New York, NY.
Radford, A.E., H.E. Ahles, and C.R. Bell. 1968. Manual of the vascular flora of the Carolinas. The University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, NC.
Bracken Fern Pteridium aquilinum
Description
The bracken fern belongs to the bracken fern family (Pteridaceae). It has a creeping subterranean rhizome that grows up to 3.5 m (11.5 ft) deep, is about 5 mm (2 in) in diameter, and can reach a length of 15 m (49 ft). The fronds are triangular in shape and up to 3 m (10 ft) tall, with lower pinnae (leaflets) nearly opposite on the rachis (stem) and almost dissected. The upper leaflets are alternate on the stem, less dissected and almost entirely near the apex of the fronds. Sori (reproductive organs) are located along the margins of the leaflets. The fiddleheads (developing fronds) are covered with silver-gray hairs and are coiled, unfurling as they grow.
Habitat and Biology
Bracken fern are found from Virginia to Alabama and West Virginia to Kentucky, primarily on acidic, nutrient-deficient soils. The species inhabits a wide variety of plant communities, including old fields and open areas in forests. Bracken fern is common in pine forests of the ACE Basin.
Growth of existing bracken fern colonies is through asexual reproduction (vegetative growth). During the growing season (July-September), new fronds sprout from the rhizomes, which spread an average of 1 meter, sometimes as much as 2 m (6.5 ft), into the surrounding area. New colonies are started by sexual reproduction. Each year, the ferns produce a crop of spores (seeds) that are dispersed by the wind to other areas. Initially, the developing fiddlehead (new frond) depends entirely on the rhizome’s food reserves. As the pinnae (leaflets) develops and unfolds, the frond begin to photosynthesize and eventually no longer needs the rhizome’s reserve.
Species Significance
Over the centuries, bracken fern has been used as vermifuge, diuretic, astringent and purgative. The Cherokee Indians used the plant as a tonic, antiseptic and antiemetic, and the Europeans used it to reduce swelling and hardness of the spleen, as well as an ointment for flesh wounds. Today, the astringent chemicals found in the rhizome are used for tanning animal skins. Although many cultures used this species as food, including modern-day wild food enthusiasts, recent studies have shown it to be carcinogenic. Also, this species is not recommended as a food source for cattle and horses since it can cause severe poisoning. The bracken fern is one of the most common fern species throughout the world.
References
Dunbar, L. 1989. Ferns of the coastal plain: Their lore, legends, and uses. University of South Carolina Press, Columbia, SC.
Fletcher, W.W. and R.C. Kirkwood. 1979. The bracken fern (Pteridium aquilinum L. (Kuhn)); its biology and control. p. 591-637. In: A.F. Dyer (ed.). The experimental biology of ferns. Academic Press, London, U.K
Radford, A.E., H.E. Ahles, and C.R. Bell. 1968. Manual of the vascular flora of the Carolinas. The University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, NC.
Watt, A.S. 1976. The ecological status of bracken. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 73:217-239.
Cabbage Palmetto Sabal palmetto
Description
The cabbage palmetto belongs to the palm family (Arecaceace). This branchless evergreen tree grows to a height of 10 m (33 ft) tall. The leaves are up to 1 m (3 ft) across and are divided into filamentous segments with a midrib that is 5-20 cm (2 to 8 in) long. The palm produces several flowering stems (panicles) that bear numerous flowers during the flowering season. Flowers are 4-5 mm long, sessile and perfect (flowers contains male and female reproductive parts). The fruit is fleshy, 8-12 mm in diameter, and purplish at maturity.
Habitat and Biology
The cabbage palmetto is found in the coastal plain region from North Carolina to Florida. The palm inhabits maritime forests, “islands” within salt and brackish marshes, and the edges of ponds. It is also a commonly planted tree in urban areas throughout South Carolina.
The cabbage palmetto produces flowers during July. The fragrant flowers attract a wide variety of insects, bees, wasps, and ants that carry the pollen from flower to flower. Once pollinated, the flowers begin to develop a one-seed fruit that matures during October and November. Many of the mature fruit are dispersed by birds and mammals that disseminate the seeds throughout their local habitats. Some of the fruit are swept away by sea currents and are transported as far away as the North Carolina shores. Seeds are deposited on beaches, maritime communities and “islands” within coastal marshes. The timing of germination and the percentage of seeds that germinate are influenced by soil temperature, illumination, and salinity. Seed germination begins when the soil temperature exceeds 20°C and continues until the soil temperature exceeds 40°C, reaching a peak within the 27.5°C and 30°C soil temperature range. Only seeds deposited in the shady areas or buried under sand or organic debris will germinate. Over 90% of the seeds deposited on soils with a salinity less than 10 ppt germinate, and the percentage of seeds that germinate drops from 90% to 41% as the soil salinity increases to 15 ppt. The cotyledonary stalk (seedling root) first emerges from the germinated seed, and at 4 cm (1.5 in) long, the stalk becomes the primary root. Next, the leaf emerges and grows toward the soil surface, and once it breaks through the surface, the leaf begins to unfold, growing to a length of about 15 cm (6 in) and width of 1.5 cm (0.6 in) before the first frost. Only one seedling leaf is produced during the first growing season, and the rate of leaf production during subsequent years is not known. Soil salinity level above 15 ppt will cause abnormal root growth (stubby, non-branching primary roots) of seedlings.
Species Significance
The fruit of the palmetto is a favorite food of robins, raccoons, and fish crows. Mockingbirds, myrtle warbler, and pileated woodpecker also eat palmetto fruit. People like to eat the apical meristem (growing point at the tip of the main stem) of the tree because its taste is similar to artichoke and cabbage. During the Revolutionary War, coastal forts were made of palmetto logs. The soft stems would absorb the force of cannon balls and not shatter. Today, the trunks are used in the construction of wharves because the wood is resistant to sea-worm infestations. The cabbage palmetto is also prized as an ornamental tree. Cabbage palmetto is common throughout its range and is the state tree of South Carolina.
References
Brown, K.E. 1976. Ecological studies of the cabbage palm, Sabal palmetto. Principes 20:3-10.
Brown, K.E. 1976. Ecological studies of the cabbage palm, Sabal palmetto. II. Dispersal, predation, and escape of seeds. Principes 20:49-56.
Brown, K.E. 1976. Ecological studies of the cabbage palm, Sabal palmetto. III. Seed germination and seedling establishment. Principes 20:99-115.
Brown, K.E. 1976. Ecological studies of the cabbage palm, Sabal palmetto. IV. Ecology and geographical distribution. Principes 20:149-157.
Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim, and A.L. Nelson. 1951. American wildlife and plants: A guide to wildlife food habits. Dover Publications Inc., New York, NY.
Porcher, R.D. 1995. Wildflowers of the Carolina Lowcountry and lower Pee Dee. University of South Carolina Press, Columbia, SC.
Radford, A.E., H.E. Ahles, and C.R. Bell. 1968. Manual of the vascular flora of the Carolinas. The University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, NC.
Canby’s Dropwort Oxypolis canbyi
Description
Canby’s dropwort belongs to the mint family (Apiaceae). It is a perennial herb which grows from 80 to 120 cm (30 to 50 in) tall. The “quill-like” hollow leaves and the thick, corky wings that extend out from the margins of the fruit are the most distinctive features of the plant. The stems are erect or ascending, round, and slender with arching/ascending or forking branches above the mid-stem. The flowers are monoecious or dioecious (flowers have either male or female parts or both) and small and white, sometimes tinged with red or pink. The flowers are borne on compound umbrella-like structures that extend from the base of the leaves, and the fruit is a schizocarp (fruit splits into one-seeded segments) about 4-6 mm long.
Habitat and Biology
Canby’s dropwort is found in Delaware and Maryland and from North Carolina to Georgia. The plant inhabits a variety of coastal plain communities, including pond cypress savannahs, the shallows and edges of cypress/pond pine ponds, sloughs, and wet pine savannas. In the ACE Basin, the species grows in wetlands within the Colleton County Cowbane Preserve.
Canby’s dropwort reproduces asexually by means of rhizomes, or lateral, underground rootstocks. Very little data are available on the life history and reproductive biology of the species. Boyer (pers. comm. 1988) with the North Carolina Plant Conservation Program conducted growth experiments and had some success with growing plants vegetatively but little success with germinating seeds. Her findings indicated that dropwort grows better on water- saturated soils than on intermittently dry soils. This may explain why the largest populations of dropwort occur in wetlands that are flooded most of the year.
Species Significance
Canby’s dropwort was federally listed as endangered on February 25, 1986. Only 25 populations of the species are currently known to exist, one of which is found in the ACE Basin. The site of this population in the ACE is on state-owned land, so it is protected from habitat alterations. The most serious threat to the population is drought or too much rain. For example, two populations of Canby’s dropwort in South Carolina were monitored during the severe drought of 1986. One population was located in Bamberg County, and the other was in Colleton County. During the drought, the water level at the Bamberg site dropped 33 cm (13 in) below the surface, while at the Colleton site the level dropped 177 cm (70 in) below the surface. At the Colleton County site, the population went from 500 plants in 1982 to fewer than five in 1986, presumably as a result of the drought, whereas the Bamberg site showed a slight decrease (Rayner 1988). No horticultural, medicinal, or other economic uses of the plant are known at this time.
References
Aulbach-Smith, C. 1985. Element stewardship abstract for Oxypolis canbyi. The Nature Conservancy, South Carolina Office, Columbia, SC.
Murdock, N. and D. Rayner. 1990. Recovery plan for Canby’s dropwort (Oxypolis canbyi [Coulter and Rose] Fernald). U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. Atlanta, GA.
Rayner, D.A. 1984. Inventory of botanical natural areas in Colleton County, South Carolina. SC Wildlife and Marine Resources Department, Division of Wildlife and Freshwater Fisheries, Columbia, SC.
Live Oak Quercus virginiana
Description
Live oak belongs to the beech family (Fagaceae). Live oaks are medium-sized evergreen trees with wide-spreading branches and dark, slightly ridged bark. The leaves are simple and thick with entire and curled margins. Live oaks are monoecious (flowers contain either male or female reproductive parts). The flowers grow in the axis of leaves: male flowers in clustered, drooping catkins, and female flowers on a short spike. Live oak leaves have a high content of fiber and are covered by dense hairs on the underside and cuticle (a waxy substance) on the upper side which protect the leaves from salt-laden breezes that would kill most other trees.
Habitat and Biology
Live oaks are found from Virginia to Florida and westward to Mississippi, where they grow in sandy soils on the coastal plain. In the ACE Basin, live oak is the dominant species in the maritime forests because of its tolerance to salt spray.
The growing season of live oak lasts about seven months, beginning in late February and continuing through late September. Radial growth begins before the leaves emerge, and in many cases, the rate of growth reaches its peak after the leaves are fully mature. The growth rate then levels off and continues at a fairly steady rate for the next 100 days or so. Over 50% of new radial growth occurs during this period of maximum growth.
Species Significance
Live oak acorns are eaten by many animals, especially during winter. They are consumed by upland game birds such as the bobwhite and wild turkey and are an important component of the diet of gray squirrels and grackles. Other animals known to eat live oak acorns include raccoons, gray foxes and rabbits. In the north, larger mammals, including the black bear, white-tailed deer and elk, are known to consume the fruits. During the colonial period, live oaks were important lumber trees. Shipbuilders would cut curved pieces from the junction of the limb and trunk and use the pieces for ribs in wooden ships. It has also been a favorite ornamental tree since the 1700s. Trees planted over 200 years ago are still in existence today. Live oaks are common throughout their range. During the antebellum period, plantation owners planted these trees on their property, especially along the main roads leading to their estates, and many of them are still alive today.
References
Eggler, W.A. 1955. Radial growth in nine species of trees in southern Louisiana. Ecology 36(1):130-136.
Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim, and A.L. Nelson. 1951. American wildlife and plants: A guide to wildlife food habits. Dover Publications Inc., New York, NY.
Porcher, R.D. 1995. Wildflowers of the Carolina Lowcountry and lower Pee Dee. University of South Carolina Press, Columbia, SC.
Radford, A.E., H.E. Ahles, and C.R. Bell. 1968. Manual of the vascular flora of the Carolinas. The University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, NC.
Loblolly Pine Pinus taeda
Description
Loblolly pine belongs to the pine family (Pinaceae). It is a large tree, reaching heights of 46 meters (150 ft). The leaves occur in bundles of three and are about 15 cm (6 in) long. The cones have stout prickles on them.
Habitat and Biology
Commercial stands of loblolly pine are found from Maine south to Florida and west to Texas, but the pine naturally occurs in Delaware, Maryland, throughout the southeast (North Carolina south to Florida and west to Mississippi River), Arkansas and Texas. The trees grow on a wide variety of soils, ranging from the poorly drained soils of the Coastal Plain to the better-drained soils of the Piedmont region. In the ACE Basin, both planted and natural stands of loblolly pine grow in moderately to poorly drained areas.
Loblolly pines grow best in soils with poor surface drainage, a deep surface layer, and a firm subsoil. The pine populations are maintained by sexual reproduction. The trees begin to produce seeds before the tenth growing season and continue for another 30 years or so. The development of a viable seed crop requires two growing seasons from the time of flower bud initiation. During the first year, flower buds grow during midsummer, reaching maturity during the winter. The following spring, the female flowers are fertilized by airborne pollen, and the seeds reach maturity in early October. The seeds are disseminated by the wind, and most of them are only carried 30 to 90 meters (100-300 ft) away from the parent tree. In most cases, less than 20% of the seeds reach the seedling stage. Many are eaten by birds and rodents before they germinate, and others die shortly after germination due to such factors as inadequate water supply or competition from faster-growing vegetation.
Species Significance
The seeds of pines constitute more than 50% of the diet of three birds: the red crossbill, Clarke nutcracker, and white-headed woodpecker. There are also quite a few species of other birds and mammals that feed on pine seeds. Pine needles are consumed by grouse and several browsers such as the white-tailed deer. Northern mammals, such as the porcupine, use the bark and wood as food. Pines are also a valuable cover for wildlife. They are a favorite roosting site for robins during migration and commonly provide nesting sites for bald eagles and other raptors. This species is very common throughout it range and is increasing due to plantings by landowners.
References
Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim, and A.L. Nelson. 1951. American wildlife and plants: A guide to wildlife food habits. Dover Publications Inc., New York, NY.
Radford, A.E., H.E. Ahles, and C.R. Bell. 1968. Manual of the vascular flora of the Carolinas. The University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, NC.
Wenger, K.F. 1958. Silvical characteristics of loblolly pine. Station Paper No. 98. Southeastern Forest Experiment Station, Asheville, NC.
Longleaf Pine Pinus palustris
Description
Longleaf pine belongs to the pine family (Pinaceae). The leaves occur in bundles of five and are 25-40 cm (10 to 16 in) long. The young stems, before the leaves emerge, resemble large candles. For the first 5-7 years, the young plant looks like a tuft of coarse grass; however, when the stem does start elongating, growth is rapid, and the plant is very conspicuous, with a large clump of long leaves near the end of the stem.
Habitat and Biology
Longleaf pine occurs from Virginia south to Florida and west to Texas. Longleaf pine grows best in a humid, subtropical climate characterized by long, hot summers and mild winters. Longleaf pine grows on sandy soil with low organic content and poor to excessive drainage. In the ACE Basin, longleaf pine stands, both planted and natural, grow in moderately to poorly drained areas.
Longleaf pine populations are maintained by sexual reproduction. The trees normally do not bear seeds until they reach six inches in diameter. The development of a viable seed crop requires three growing seasons from the time of flower bud initiation. During the first year, flower buds grow during midsummer, reaching maturity during the winter. The following spring, the female flowers are fertilized by airborne pollen, and the seeds reach maturity in early October of the third growing season. The seeds are disseminated by the wind, and most of them are carried less than 120 feet away from the parent tree.
Seeds typically germinate within one week after seedfall. Germination rates of seeds are often above 90 percent, especially in recently burned areas. Fires reduce the grass cover, creating bare areas where seeds can germinate. Primary needles appear shortly after germination and secondary needles about two months later. Seedlings typically remain in a grass stage for three to seven years. During this period, diameter and height growth are slow; most plants only grow two inches tall and one inch in diameter. The next growth stage, the elongation period, is signified by rapid growth. Some seedlings are known to elongate 30 centimeters (12 inches) during the first growth spurt.
Species Significance
Many species of birds and mammals feed on seeds of the Longleaf Pine. Pine needles are also consumed by grouse and several browsers such as the white-tailed deer. Northern mammals, such as the porcupine, use the bark and wood as food. Pines are also a valuable cover for wildlife. They are favorite roosting sites for robins during migration and commonly provide nesting sites for bald eagles and other raptors.
The South Carolina Heritage Trust Program considers longleaf pine to be a species of concern. Approximately seven million acres (3%) of the estimated 97 million acres of the original longleaf pine habitat in the Southeast exists today. Efforts are underway throughout the Southeast to acquire and restore the best remaining examples of the habitat.
References
Fowells, H.A. (ed.). 1965. Silvics of forest trees of the United States. Agriculture Handbook No. 271. Division of Timber Management, Forest Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC.
Frost, C.C. 1993. Four centuries of changing landscape patterns in the longleaf pine ecosystem. p. 17-43. In: S.M. Hermann (ed.). The Longleaf Pine ecosystem: Ecology, restoration and management. Proceedings of the Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference, No. 18. Tall Timbers Research Station, Tallahassee, FL.
Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim, and A.L. Nelson. 1951. American wildlife and plants: A guide to wildlife food habits. Dover Publications Inc., New York, NY.
Radford, A.E., H.E. Ahles, and C.R. Bell. 1968. Manual of the vascular flora of the Carolinas. The University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, NC.
Poison Ivy Toxicodendrum radicans (Rhus radicans)
Description
Poison ivy belongs to the cashew family (Anacardiaceae). The species is easily recognized by its leaf structure and adventitious roots. The leaves of the liana (woody vine) are deeply dissected into three thin leaflets that are hairy along the veins on the underside. The leaflet shape ranges from ovate to elliptic, with margins that are entire, shallowly lobed or serrated; usually all three margin types are found on one plant. Their tips are pointy, and the bases are rounded. Leaflet size is variable, ranging from 5-20 cm (2 to 8 in) long and 2-12 cm (1-5 in) wide. The flowers are monoecious (individual flowers have either male or female flower parts). Male flowers (contain stigma, the pollen-producers) and female flowers (contain pistils, seed producers) are greenish-white to cream and about 0.6 cm (0.25 in) across.
Habitat and Biology
Poison ivy is found throughout the southeastern United States (Virginia to Florida and west to the Mississippi River) where it grows in all types of communities, ranging from open areas to forests, as well as in disturbed sites such as ditches and roadsides. Poison ivy prefers shady, damp places such as mesic forests and swamps, but it is also a common species in maritime forests such as those in the ACE Basin.
The plants produce flowers in April and May, and various insects transport the pollen from the male flower to the female flower. The fruits mature in August and September, and the seeds germinate in the spring of the following year. Seedlings use adventitious roots to attach themselves to trees, rocks, and buildings. The plant also attaches to cypress “knees” (aboveground roots), and when it reaches the top of the knee, it branches out laterally, forming a dome-shaped growth over the cypress knee. When no host is available, poison ivy creeps along the ground.
Species Significance
It is estimated that 70% of the population in the United States is sensitive to the oil produced by the leaves and stems. The oil, urushiol, causes painful rashes and blistering of the skin. However, its fruit is popular with wildlife. The fruit is consumed by many kinds of birds, particularly during the winter when other sources of food are scarce. In the Southeast, catbirds, Carolina chickadees, and wild turkeys are known to feed on it. The fruit is also consumed by several species of songbirds and a few mammals, who also eat the stems and leaves, including the black bear, wood rat, and mule deer.
References
Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim, and A.L. Nelson. 1951. American wildlife and plants: A guide to wildlife food habits. Dover Publications Inc., New York, NY.
Porcher, R.D. 1985. A field guide to the Bluff Plantation. Kathleen O’Brien Foundation, New Orleans, LA.
Radford, A.E., H.E. Ahles, and C.R. Bell. 1968. Manual of the vascular flora of the Carolinas. The University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, NC.
Pondberry Lindera melissifolia
Description
Pondberry belongs to the Laurel family (Lauraceae). It is a small, deciduous shrub (30-200 cm or 12-80 in tall) that is easily identified by the sassafras-like aroma of freshly crushed leaves. The leaves are thin and alternate, and their shape varies from oblong to oval, or a combination of the two. The tips of the leaves are somewhat pointed, and the bases are slightly tapered to rounded. The margins are entire, and the lower surface of the leaves is sparsely to densely covered with fine hairs. Flowers are dioecious (individual flowers have either male or female flower parts), small, and pale yellow. The fruits are nearly a half inch long and bright red at maturity.
Habitat and Biology
Pondberry is found in Arkansas, Missouri, and Mississippi and from North Carolina to Georgia. The species inhabits pond margins, swampy depressions, sandy sinks, and seasonally flooded wetlands. In South Carolina, pondberry grows along the margins of limestone sinks and shallow depressions. The plant also inhabits pinelands and recently burned open areas. Radford and others (1968) included Colleton County in the known distribution of pondberry, but Rayner (1984) did not find it during his survey.
The shrub generally grows in clones of numerous stems that are not highly branched. Clones expand vegetatively, eventually consisting of many well-rooted stems. The stems usually live about six or seven growing seasons, and new stems sprout from the base of dead stems; thus, a mature colony usually consists of numerous dead stems with younger leafy ones. Many populations consist predominately of male plants (only producing male flowers). Pondberry flowers bloom in the second to fourth years of growth. The clusters of yellow flowers bloom during February or March, before the leaves emerge. The fruits mature by late summer or fall, and each fruit produces one seed. However, very little data exist on the reproductive success of pondberry. A few studies indicate that insects, flies, wasps and small bees are the major pollinators, carrying pollen from the male flowers to the pistils of the females. The seeds are probably dispersed by mammals and birds and germinate during the next growing season.
Species Significance
Pondberry does not have any particular aesthetic value, nor are any horticultural, medicinal, or other economic uses known. Pondberry is a rare plant that was federally listed as endangered on July 31, 1986. Historically, the plant had a wider distribution, but only 37 populations of the species are currently found within its range. Fortunately, most of the plants are located on protected lands.
References
DeLay, L., R. O’Connor, J. Ryan, and R.R. Currie. 1993. Recovery plan for Pondberry (Lindera melissifolia [Walt.] Blume). U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. Atlanta, GA.
Godfrey, R.K. and J.W. Wooten. 1981. Aquatic and wetland plants of southeastern United States: Dicotyledons. The University of Georgia Press, Athens, GA.
Radford, A.E., H.E. Ahles, and C.R. Bell. 1968. Manual of the vascular flora of the Carolinas. The University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, NC.
Rayner, D.A. 1984. Inventory of botanical natural areas in Colleton County, South Carolina. SC Wildlife and Marine Resources Department, Division of Wildlife and Freshwater Fisheries, Columbia, SC.
Steyermark, J.A. 1949. Lindera melissifolia. Rhodera 51(608):153-162.
Tucker, G.E. 1984. Status report on Lindera melissifolia (Walt.) blume. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Southeast Region, Atlanta, GA.
Sea Oats Uniola paniculata
Description
Sea oats, a salt-loving species, belongs to the grass family (Poaceae). The plant produces a well- developed rhizome (horizontal root) system, and 0.5-1.5 m (1.6-5 ft) tall culms (stems) sprout from the node along the rhizomes. The leaves are lance-shaped and are up to 20 cm (8 in) tall and 0.2-2.5 cm (less than 1 in) wide. Both surfaces of the leaves are free of hairs, with only a few at the leaf base, and the margins are scaberulous, long, and up to 2 cm (0.8 in) wide. The panicles (flowering stems) are 20-50 cm (8-20 in) long and 5-15 cm (2-6 in) wide, free of hair and ascending.
Habitat and Biology
Sea oats are found from Virginia to the Florida Panhandle and west to Mississippi. The plants inhabit sandy dunes on coastal islands and along the coastlines. In South Carolina, the plant grows on the dunes along the coastal mainland in Horry and Georgetown Counties, and the barrier islands that are found from Berkeley to Beaufort Counties, including Otter and Edisto Islands in the ACE Basin.
Sea oats thrive in the unstable, xeric environment of the dune community. When new sand is deposited, the plants extend their rhizomes (horizontal roots) over and through the new sands, which contain vital nutrients needed for plant growth. The newly established roots then produce shoots, and additional leaves sprout from the base of the new leaves, forming tussocks (clumps of leaves). Their extensive rhizome system helps to stabilizes the sand around the plants, and the tussock growth form acts as a wind break. The tussocks also enable the plants to trap sand near the base of the clumps. The species grows best under the low soil-moisture conditions in the dune community. In fact, frequent watering of the soil will retard plant growth and eventually kill the plants. New sea oat populations are established by sexual reproduction. Sea oats produce flowers in July, which are fertilized by wind-dispersed pollen, and by mid-August the fully developed, fertilized seeds are then dispersed by the wind to new dunes. The seeds remain dormant through the fall and winter and germinate during the spring. The percentage of seeds that sprout depends on how deep the seeds were buried under the sand. Studies have indicated that there is enough food reserve in the seed to support the first three to five inches of growth. The highest percentage of germination occurred in areas where the seeds were buried under two to four inches of sand. The root system of the seedlings develops rapidly during the first two months, and often the roots extend 10 times the height of the shoot. The extensive root system of the seedling functions like that of the adult plants: it enables the sea oats seedling to extend into and stabilize the shifting sands.
Species Significance
This species is among the most effective native sand-binding grasses. Therefore, this species is an important contributor to dune formation and stabilization. The South Carolina Department of Natural Resources, Heritage Trust Program, considers sea oats to be a species of concern. Current data indicate that their populations in the state may be declining due to habitat (i.e., wet or well- drained soils, loamy or sandy or mucky substrate ) loss or alteration or pollution.
References
Oosting, H.J. and W.D. Billings. 1942. Factors effecting vegetational zonation on coastal dunes. Ecology 23(2):131-142.
Radford, A.E., H.E. Ahles, and C.R. Bell. 1968. Manual of the vascular flora of the Carolinas. The University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, NC.
Wagner, R.H. 1964. The ecology of Uniola paniculata L. in the dune-strand habitat of North Carolina. Ecological Monographs 34(1):79-96.
Smooth Cordgrass Spartina alterniflora
Description
Smooth cordgrass belongs to the grass family (Poaceae) and is a perennial wetland grass that dominates tidal salt marshes of the south. Each plant produces a tough rhizome (roots) system. The maximum height of the plants varies greatly, ranging from 20-150 cm (8-60 in) tall, and the stems are erect. Leaf blades are 4-15 mm wide, and the margins are smooth to somewhat scabrid.
Habitat and Biology
Smooth cordgrass is found from Newfoundland to Florida and west to Texas. The plant forms colonies in tidal salt marshes. In South Carolina, smooth cordgrass is found along all major estuarine waterways. The species dominates the regularly flooded marsh (“low marsh”) and is a common species in the irregularly flooded marsh (“high marsh”).
Existing populations of smooth cordgrass are maintained through asexual reproduction (reproducing vegetatively by means of rhizomes), and new sites are established by sexual reproduction. Smooth cordgrass produces flowers during the fall (October and November), and the seeds germinate during the following spring (March). The seeds are never dormant, but salt water will slow down the development. Smooth cordgrass seedlings grow about 20 cm (8 in), and produce flowers during their first growing season. In South Carolina, aerial growth of smooth cordgrass starts in March and ends in November, but the roots and rhizomes grow year- round. Maximum monthly growth rate occurs most commonly during July or August.
Soil salinity is a proximate determinant of inter-annual variation in primary production. Growth is negatively correlated with soil salinity-growth rate slows with increasing salinity. Highest growth rate occurs at salinities of 20 ppt or less, and the upper limit for salt tolerance is 60 ppt. Marshes with soil salinities above 75 ppt do not tend to have stands of smooth cordgrass. Height of smooth cordgrass is also inversely related to soil salinity levels. Along the creek and river banks where soil salinity level is lowest, smooth cordgrass reaches a maximum height of three meters. As the soil salinity increases with distance from the river bank, the average height of the species decreases from one meter on the levee to less than 20 inches tall at the upper reaches salt marsh where the soil salinity level is highest. Other factors that influence the growth of smooth cordgrass include soil aeration, nutrient availability, and hydroperiod.
Species Significance
Smooth cordgrass is an important food source for many endemic and migratory birds. The seeds are eaten by marshbirds, songbirds, sharp-tailed sparrows and several species of migratory waterfowl. Geese that winter along the coast are known to eat the rootstocks. Cordgrass also provides nursery and protective habitat for many aquatic species, especially juvenile crustaceans and fishes.
References
Godfrey, R.K. and J.W. Wooten. 1981. Aquatic and wetland plants of southeastern United States: Dicotyledons. The University of Georgia Press, Athens, GA.
Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim, and A.L. Nelson. 1951. American wildlife and plants: A guide to wildlife food habits. Dover Publications Inc., New York, NY.
Morris, J.T. and B. Haskin. 1990. A 5-yr record of aerial primary production and stand characteristics of Spartina alterniflora. Ecology 71(6):2209-2217.
Waisel, Y. 1972. Biology of halophytes, In: T.T. Kozlowski (ed.). Physiological ecology, a series of monographs, texts, and treatises. Academic Press, New York, NY.
Woodhouse, W.W., Jr., E.D. Seneca, and S.W. Broome. 1974. Propagation of Spartina alterniflora for substrate stabilization and salt marsh development. Technical Memorandum No. 46. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Coastal Engineering Research Center. Fort Belvoir, VA.
Wax Myrtle Myrica cerifera
Description
The wax myrtle belongs to the wax myrtle family (Myricaceae), and is characterized by the aromatic glands found on the surfaces of its leaves. These glands release a sweet odor when crushed. The wax myrtle is an evergreen shrub or small tree (0.3-7 m tall), with nearly hairless twigs. Leaves are wedge-shaped, often leathery, and toothed, and they are up to 8 cm long and 2 cm wide. The plant is dioecious (flowers contain male and female reproductive parts), and its flowers lack petals and sepals and are arranged in a catkin (a cluster of flowers on a slender, often droopy, spike). The fruit is a nutlet that turns purple at maturity and is covered with a waxy substance.
Habitat and Biology
Wax myrtle is found from Virginia to Florida and in Alabama and Mississippi; however, a species of Myrica occurs in every coastal state of the United States. This species is mainly confined to the coastal areas, but locally it may extend a few miles inland. The shrub inhabits the moist, sandy soils of maritime and upland communities.
Existing populations of wax myrtle are maintained through asexual reproduction (reproducing vegetatively), and new sites are established by sexual reproduction. Flowers bloom during spring, typically first emerging in April. The fruits mature in the summer, releasing their seeds in early fall (October). Seeds germinate the following growing season, and the seedlings grow rapidly and form thickets through vegetative propagation.
High leaf photosynthetic rates, photosynthetic branches, an evergreen leaf habit, and the ability to reproduce vegetatively enable the shrub to rapidly expand in the sandy soils characteristic of coastal environments. The species also maintains a high level of productivity on nutrient poor soil by increasing nutrient availability in the rhizosphere. On soils low in nitrogen, the actinorhizal shrub forms a facultative symbiosis with Frankia (bacteria), fixing nitrogen needed for plant uptake. Wax myrtle develops cluster roots (aggregation of rootlets) when grown in low phosphorus soil. The cluster roots enhance the plant’s ability to retain and absorb phosphorus in nutrient poor soil.
Species Significance
The wax-coated nutlets are eaten by many species of birds, including the insect-eating tree swallow. Since colonial times, wax myrtle foliage has been used ornamentally, and the waxy coating on the fruits has been used to make candles and scented soaps. Fresh and dried leaves are used as flavorings, and leaves are also grated or moistened seeds are used as condiments.
References
Louis, I., S. Racette, and J.G Torrey. 1990. Occurrence of cluster roots on Myrica cerifera L. (Myricaceae) in water culture in relation to phosphorus nutrition. New Phytologist 115:311-317.
Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim, and A.L. Nelson. 1951. American wildlife and plants: A guide to wildlife food habits. Dover Publications Inc., New York, NY.
Peterson, L.A. 1977. A field guide to edible wild plants of eastern and central North America. Peterson Field Guide Series. Houghton Mifflin Company, New York, NY.
Radford, A.E., H.E. Ahles, and C.R. Bell. 1968. Manual of the vascular flora of the Carolinas. The University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, NC.
Young, D.R. 1992. Photosynthetic characteristics and potential moisture stress for the actinorhizal shrub, Myrica cerifera (Myricaceae), on a Virginia barrier island. American Journal of Botany 79(1):2-7.
Young, D.R., G. Shao, and J.H. Porter. 1995. Spatial and temporal growth dynamics of barrier island shrub thickets. American Journal of Botany 82(5):638-645.
Widgeon Grass Ruppia maritima
Description
Widgeon grass belongs to the ditch-grass family (Ruppiaceae) and is a submersed aquatic grass. The stems are simple or branched, and the leaves are alternate and threadlike. The leaves reach a maximum length of 10 cm (4 in) and width of 0.6 mm. The flowers are small and white, and the fruits are roundish, dark and 2-3 mm long.
Habitat and Biology
Natural and cultivated populations of widgeon grass are found along the Atlantic and Pacific coasts and in wetlands throughout the Midwestern and Western states. They grow in alkaline, brackish or saline waters between 2 and 19 ppt. However, the plants have been observed growing in hypersaline waters (77 ppt) and in freshwater. Also, the species grows best in calm waters and permanently flooded wetlands.
Widgeon grass appears to have two growing seasons (spring and fall) that are controlled by water temperature ranging from 18.5°C to 30°C. When the temperature falls outside this range, vegetative growth ceases. Water depth and turbidity are the major factors influencing the vegetative growth of widgeon grass. The best vegetative growth of widgeon grass occurs when water depth is maintained between 40 and 61 cm (15-24 in) and the concentration of suspended material (a measure of turbidity) stays below 55 ppm. Turbidity was found to be most harmful to young plants before the stems reached the surface of the water. Reproductive activities are most affected by water temperature and soil salinity. Widgeon grass seeds do not germinate until the water temperature rises above 15°C, and the temperature must be above 20°C for seedling growth. Flowering and fruiting usually starts in May when the water temperature is above 29°C. Although widgeon grass is a halophyte (salt-tolerant plant) and adults can survive in soils with salinity as high as 3%, levels above 1.12% are extremely harmful to germination and in many cases will cause seed mortality.
Species Significance
Widgeon grass is one of the most valuable aquatic plants for migrating waterfowl. All parts of the plant are edible and are consumed by the ducks that frequent the impoundments of the ACE Basin, including black ducks, mallards, and scaups. Widgeon grass is common throughout its range, and many landowners in the ACE Basin manage their impoundments for this species.
References
Godfrey, R.K. and J.W. Wooten. 1981. Aquatic and wetland plants of southeastern United States: Dicotyledons. The University of Georgia Press, Athens, GA.
Joanen, T. and L.L. Glasgow. 1965. Factors influencing the establishment of widgeongrass stands in Louisiana. Proceedings of the Nineteenth Annual Conference Southeastern Association of Game and Fish Commissioners. Published by the Southeastern Association of Game and Fish Commissioners. Columbia, SC.
Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim, and A.L. Nelson. 1951. American wildlife and plants: A guide to wildlife food habits. Dover Publications Inc., New York, NY.
Wild Rice Zizania aquatica
Description
Wild rice belongs to the grass family (Poaceae), and is an aquatic grass. The species is a perennial (lives for many years) grass in the South and an annual (plant dies each year) in the North and West. The plant is 1-4 m (3-12 ft) tall, and the stems are thick and spongy. The leaves are long, flat, and wide, and they have finely sharp-toothed margins. The species is monoecious, and male and female flowers appear on the same panicles (flowering stems). The panicles are large and terminal (at the apex of the plant). The lower branches of the panicles are pendulous, and the upper branches are stiffly ascending.
Habitat and Biology
Wild rice is found from Quebec, Canada, to Florida and west to Texas and North Dakota. Populations of this grass are also found in Idaho and Arizona. Wild rice inhabits freshwater marshes and quiet waters of streams. In the ACE Basin, it grows in abandoned rice fields and tidal freshwater and brackish marshes. Wild rice thrives in shallow water, where the bottom is mucky or silty, and there is enough water circulation to provide sufficient oxygen for growth.
Wild rice grows vegetatively for a relatively long period (April-September). In July, flowers emerge and are pollinated. Seeds mature over the next two months. Wind disperses mature seeds throughout the marsh, where they remain dormant during the winter and germinate the following spring. By late August, vegetative growth and sexual reproduction cease.
Species Significance
In South Carolina, wild rice seeds are a favorite food of ducks, rails, blackbirds, and bobolinks. They are considered an excellent duck food. Wild rice is common throughout its range, and it has been planted with great success in many areas outside its native range.
References
Godfrey, R.K. and J.W. Wooten. 1981. Aquatic and wetland plants of southeastern United States: Dicotyledons. The University of Georgia Press, Athens, GA.
Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim, and A.L. Nelson. 1951. American wildlife and plants: A guide to wildlife food habits. Dover Publications Inc., New York, NY.
Odum, W.E., T.J. Smith, III, J.K. Hoover, and C.C. McIvor. 1984. The ecology of tidal freshwater marshes of the United States east coast: A community profile. Report No. FWS/OBS-83/17. U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. Washington, DC.
Porcher, R.D. 1995. Wildflowers of the Carolina Lowcountry and lower Pee Dee. University of South Carolina Press, Columbia, SC.
Whigham, D. and R. Simpson. 1977. Growth, mortality, and biomass partitioning in freshwater tidal wetland populations of wild rice (Zizania aquatica var. aquatica). Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club 104(4):347-351.